Seabird biologists are not only interested in the curious habits, esthetic qualities of species, and population numbers, but also in the way each form of life fits into the whole web of living things. By studying the interspecific and the intraspecific relationships of seabirds, for example, the biologist learns important details missed by the casual observer. The knowledge gained helps us to determine the human role in the web. By examining the ecological effects which our industrial and agronomic activities have on the world, scientists can also tell us how to protect and maintain a balanced population of all species.

As we modify the surface of the earth and plant our oil rigs in the bottom of the sea, there is a danger that we may bring about the extinction of our seabirds. All types of marine life are attracted to artificial reefs created by oil platforms and other constructions. This can be good. Yet life could also perish there. What calamity would result if an oil spill occurs in a place where a myriad forms of life, include diving seabirds, normally flourish. What would happen if, for example, a large oil slick encountered the immense numbers of migrating and wintering auks off the coast of Alaska, Newfoundland or in the North Sea? Oil on the surface of the sea is particularly hazardous to the various species of diving birds because it entraps them as they come to the surface. Along coastal regions, there is no time of year when an oil spill would not be hazardous to birds and there is no coastal area which is immune.²²⁷ Man is obligated to develop the technology which prevents such accidents, although at the same time we must realize that no endeavor of man is completely free of risks. But we must be as careful and as responsible as we know how to be. Offshore drilling operations have proven particularly vulnerable to accidents. The whole world heard about the supertanker AMOCO CADIZ which spilled thousands of barrels of crude oil into the sea near the coasts of France in 1977. It was a grim reminder of the TORREY CANYON episode and many other major tanker disasters. Since then there have been numerous other oil spills including one near Port Angeles, Washington in 1985, adjacent to Protection Island, a large seabird colony. Another occurred along Washington's Olympic coast in December, 1988.

Undoutedly, the world's greatest and most publicized spill was the EXXON VALDEZ accident in Prince William Sound Alaska in March 1989. It occurred just when birds were beginning to breed for the season and salmon were beginning the spring run. An estimate of more than 11 million gallons of oil escaped when the tanker ran aground on a reef. At least 100,000 (possibly as many as 300,000) marine birds died, 80 percent of which were alcids, along with Bald Eagles, otter and other marine life. Serious damage to to the environment along hundreds of kilometers of shoreline occurred resulting in inestimable financial loss to the economy of the State of Alaska, commercial fisheries, and to the responsible company.

Even the Antarctic has proven susceptable. In January, 1989, the BAHIA PARAISO struck rocks spilling fuel and oil causing death to tons of krill, to penguins and other animals. Since these spills occurred others have been happening almost on a weekly basis.

There is no possible excuse either for flushing oil or dumping wastes into the sea. It has been calculated that each year, oil tankers deliberately flush millions of gallons of crude oil into the sea. Data from the Environmental Directorate of the Paris-based Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development indicate that each year about 3.5 million metric tons of oil are spilled into the oceans, mostly along tanker lanes. This is not only a waste of resources, but is also a hazard to life in the sea. Oil companies must prevent accidents and find methods for rapid clean-up if spills do occur. Oil companies have spent hundreds of millions of dollars to protect the environment around drilling rigs, mines, and refineries. Exxon spent in excess of two billion dollars in efforts to clean up after the spill in Prince William Sound. Consequently, a year later little evidence of the spill remained, new marine life had re-established, and salmon fisheries enjoyed one of their most productive seasons. Such effort is commendable, and it shows that at least the major companies care and are responsible. Alertness and prevention are worth more than cure especially in sensitive and pristine areas such as Prince William Sound where industrial crews must be especially on guard.

Information is being published monthly warning of great declines in seabird populations throughout the northern hemisphere. The data are so alarming that, over the last few decades revision downward in population figures has been needed. Murre populations, for example, are now estimated at 30 to 60 percent less in many of their breeding locations than they were in the mid 1950s.^{49, 176, 183, 434} R.M. Lockley in 1953 estimated that there were more than 15 million Atlantic Puffins, but present figures indicate only one-quarter of this number.^{434, 438} On Lundy Island, England, the murre population declined from 6,000 to 1,700 in thirty-five years. The Razorbill declined from 5,000 to 1,200 in the same period, and the Atlantic Puffin from thousands to a few scattered pairs.⁴⁸² Just in case the high figures for a few species give us a false security, we must remember that the now extinct Passenger Pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, once numbered in the millions; most species of auks are not nearly so numerous.

In estimating populations of seabirds, it is preferable to err on the conservative side. There is good reason to suspect that some estimates are vastly inflated. The ornithologist becomes a little overwhelmed with excitement when he or she first visits large colonies and is apt to grossly exaggerate the figures, perhaps not realizing how vast the number 100,000 really is, let alone 1,000,000. If one bird is counted every second for twenty-four hours, the total will be only 86,400. Another easy way to make a mistake is to count the number of burrow entrances in a measured area in a colony of hole-nesting species, and to assume that each burrow represents the nest of a pair of birds. Upon close observation one soon discovers that such an estimate gives a figure far in excess of reality, since not all of those holes are actually occupied: it takes considerably more effort to determine which burrows are actually in use. Surface nesters are a little easier to count by setting up grids or by counting from photographs. In these ways, reasonable accuracy can be obtained, but even then, variable attendance at the colony must be considered. Most of the figures presented in this volume were collected before 1980 and censuses need repeating. More recent counts in a few locations suggest that population levels for some species have changed considerably in the last decade.

A seabird faces many natural dangers: man has no control over natural oil seepage from the bottom of the sea or the storms and cold weather which periodically wipe out thousands. Storms undoubtedly kill more birds than any other single event. David Nettleship, and other experts on Arctic seabirds, recorded that a particularly cold summer season on Canadian Arctic islands in 1978 greatly diminished seabird reproductive success. Some species experienced almost 100 percent failure because the pack ice did not break up during the breeding season.⁴³⁷ A seabird is restricted by its needs to only those topographical areas of coast line which provide the proper slope, depth, water temperature, and circulation for adequate food production. More than any other group of birds in the northern hemisphere, the alcids demonstrate a close reliance on the temperature gradients and other physical factors of the sea, and in this respect, they resemble the penguins, petrels and albatrosses of the southern hemisphere.⁵¹¹

Seasonal changes and variation in the direction of an ocean current may wipe out food sources. These changes may be in cycles of decades or centuries. Other factors which influence the dependability of a feeding area are upwelling, tidal rips, icepacks, and storm patterns. The diurnal rhythm of prey and predator must also coincide.

It is obvious too, that industrial pollutants and effluents may bring about the local evacuation of a species but we must also look for natural causes before final conclusions can be established. Jean Bédard, after years of study, notes that an alcid colony does not have the permanency and stability of numbers which some other researchers have suggested; rather, variation in abundance and distribution is the rule.⁵⁴

All seabirds return to land to breed. Their location during the reproductive period is of necessity a compromise between dry land with suitable nesting sites and the marine conditions that provide the food resources. Such sites having both of these biological and physical factors are limited. Seabirds, then, are not spread randomly along our coastlines. They congregate in areas that meet their reproductive needs. The large colonies formed may represent almost the entire population of half an ocean.^{438, 439} Any thoughtful person can readily comprehend then how easily extinction could come about. Dead calm lasting for several days may actually harm seabirds. During these extended calm periods, thin films of oil from diatoms accumulates on the surface, coating the feathers of puffins and murres, causing waterlogging and ultimately, death. Windy conditions and rough seas break up the diatomaceous films.⁵⁹¹

Natural predation at nesting colonies can also limit population. Foxes, gulls, jaegers, eagles, falcons, crows and owls are predators on the young and eggs of seabirds. Some alcids and other small seabirds even end up in the bellies of fish. It is quite apparent, then, that seabirds have plenty of hazards with which to contend without man adding more. In the past, perhaps the greatest threat to seabirds, particularly the alcids, has been the economical and gastronomical greed of man. Man has brought about the extinction and near extinction of some species by introducing animals, by harvesting eggs and slaughtering birds for flesh, oil, bait, fertilizer, and feathers in a needless and grotesque fashion.49, 434

People who live in Arctic regions perhaps have a very good reason to harvest seabirds as they have done for centuries, but do people who live far more abundantly need to use machines to kill by the ton instead of the kilo? We are doing this. Annually our fishing industry, perhaps unintentionally, kills in nets thousands of seabirds, dolphins, and porpoises. Surely we should insist that methods of capture should be more species-specific, that man's food fish be harvested according to sensible conservation practices, and that adequate sized areas are set aside as protected spawning grounds. We need more maritime parks which will act as reproductive preserves for harvestable organisms. Where parks have been set aside, fisheries have greatly benefited in adjacent waters. The whaling industry, too, is about to eliminate the world's whales and dolphins. Man has also unintentionally damaged seabird populations by introducing rats and more deliberately foxes, cats, and dogs onto islands where they do not belong.⁴⁹

Besides the predation and intrusion by man already mentioned, there are other reasons for the decline of seabird populations: lumbering may affect the nesting of the Marbled Murrelet which often nest in mature forest trees, and territories of other species may be displaced by marine mammals such as sea lions. Alcid territories may also be overcome by increased populations of gulls and cormorants. That many Arctic people are now using shotguns instead of snares and nets for taking their catch is also a concern. Nor are regulatory laws effective in these areas.¹⁸³ We need an adequate educational program for all people, if needless slaughter is to be prevented . The World Summit Conference for the preservation of world environment held in Brazil in 1992 will hopefully promote greater awareness of the problems that Earth faces. It is well to meet in this fashion, but it is vital to go beyond the rhetoric of great speeches to do what is necessary to save the planet. It will take all governments working together with all business corporations to make a difference. It is time for action not more words. Environmental organizations must remind legislators of their commitments, but they too must do more than to sceam and demonstrate. They must show the world how to intelligently protect and preserve. The fact that 48 major corporations including some oil and chemical companies in 1992 called for stricter laws together with enforcement, is an indication that they they are interested in pollution control and environmental clean-up. Many corporations are interested in preserving the worldıs resources, but legislators must fairly apply the laws so that no one can take economical advantage over another.

There are other major causes for fluctuating natural populations. Natural population cycles are known to exist, although we have no one satisfactory answer as to why they occur. Some depletion of numbers may be partly due to such cyclical changes. Another cause is the organism itself. For example, a burrowing bird tends to ruin the breeding sites by its own actions. Sod is heavily undermined by burrowing birds on some islands causing collapse and consequent destruction of the area for nesting purposes. This phenomenon is evident where puffins nest, and it is seen also on New Zealand islands where Diving Petrels and various species of shearwaters undermine the soil, particularly around the roots of trees. Fecal material, which acts as concentrated fertilizer, is deposited in the burrows and this, along with extensive aeration caused by the burrowing, eventually kills some species of trees. When the trees die and only nitrophilous plants and lichens remain, surface-nesting species take over. It may be centuries before the conditions are right again for vegetation and burrow-breeders to return. Erosion can completely change a territory after the vegetation dies. Volcanic activity and rock slides have also taken their toll on colonial nesting birds. The distribution of alcids and seals, and alcids and endemic plants, show striking agreement although governed by complex factors. ⁶¹⁶

Sudden changes in the air temperature may lower the resistance of a bird so that it may succumb to pulmonary infections. Atlantic Puffins kept in captivity in a New York Zoo died quickly when exposed to warm temperatures but while kept cool remained healthy. ¹³⁴ Most mass deaths are more likely caused by storms which prevent the birds from obtaining food. In the weakened condition that follows, seabirds quickly fatigue and die of exposure.

Parasites, both external and internal, have been studied in only a few species of auk. Fleas, ticks, lice, and mites bother the auk particularly during the nesting season when young in the nest are frequently subjected to infestations. ^37,184 However, there is little evidence that external parasites are a significant cause of mortality in the young. Although these organisms may serve as vectors of disease and viruses, infestations are usually not severe enough to be more than a nuisance and discomfort. On occasion, a young bird may be found with several ticks adhering to the face, particularly about the eyes and base of the bill. When the ticks have fed, they drop off. Reinfestation is usually not possible after the birds leave for the sea.

Internal parasites have perhaps more impact on the general health of alcids. Although studies are few, we do know that they are infested by various worms. However, worm infestations are usually less a problem in alcids than they are in other groups of seabirds, such as cormorants and gulls.

In the Newfoundland areas, helminth parasites infest the gizzards, airsac system, and respiratory tracts of the six species of auks studied there. Altogether twelve genera and seventeen species of helminth worms have been found in the Razorbill, Common, and Thick-billed Murres in that locality. The percentage of birds with helminth infestation in the Canadian Atlantic area is: Thick-billed Murre, 60 percent; Razorbill, 25 percent; Black Guillemot, 13 percent; Dovekie, 12 percent; Atlantic Puffin, 8 percent.⁶⁰⁵ When compared to infestations in gulls, these percentages are considered low.

An unusual form of pentastomid, a worm-like parasite, was found in the respiratory system of murres in the northeastern Atlantic. Similar species are found in other birds, but the specimen Reighardia lomvia, has been described as a new species restricted, as far as we know, to the murre.¹⁷⁵ Further investigation of alcids by parasitologists may uncover new forms of protozoan parasites and unknown helminths. Unexpected sudden die-offs which are noted occasionally, especially among the more populous species of auk, may be caused by unusually heavy infestations of parasites and other diseases.

Exploitation of food resources should also be considered a factor in the decline of seabird populations. Although E.N. Kurochkin and others have mentioned that it is the hydrological changes of the ocean which bring about the changes in food availability,^{241, 344} it could just as well be man's exploiting of the same food, or interference in some vital link in the food chain. The fact that several nations harvest capelin on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland is cause for loud alarm. What will the birds eat when their food source is gone into the bellies and fertilizer bins of man? Food requirements to sustain seabird populations reach a phenomenal quantity: studies including all species foraging within a range of forty kilometers of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, have indicated that 53,600 metric tons of food must be available during the four months of the breeding season.⁶⁵²

Will cruise ships with their loads of curious passengers, tourists, and ornithologists ruin the habitats of alcids by trespassing on them? We hope not. The birds are here to form a vital strand in the web of life, to be studied and enjoyed, not destroyed. We must seek ways and funds to preserve these valuable and beautiful species; for they too, should inherit the earth. Without them, we also may perish.