Scientific name:Fratercula arctica
Alternate name: Common Puffin; Pope, Little brother; Mullet; Sea-parrot; Coulterneb
Danish: Lunde
Greenland: Quilangaq

The Atlantic Puffin has perhaps inspired more interest and study than any other diving seabird. Whole books have been written on this debonair bird. Ronald M. Lockley's book on this puffin was one of the first life history studies of any species of alcid. ³⁶⁷ Lockley was especially favored, for he lived for years among the birds on Skokholm, an island of his own near Pembroke, Wales. He describes the puffin as "handsome, beautiful, shrewd-looking, inquisitive, neighborly, affectionate, faithful, and curious". Minor size variations detected between different geographical populations of Atlantic Puffins are now considered to be due to environmental effects and do not warrant dividing the species into subspecies.³⁹⁹

About 365,000 pairs nest in North America, with the largest concentration on three islands in Witless Bay, Newfoundland, where it is estimated by Dr. David Nettleship of the Canadian Wildlife Service that 60 percent of the total North American population breed. ^{436, 439} Only one breeding colony of the Atlantic Puffin occurs in United States territory; this is on Matinicus Rock, Maine, where today about one hundred pairs breed. Steve Kress, under sponsorship of the National Audubon Society and in cooperation with the Canadian Wildlife Service, has had success in establishing a second colony on another island sanctuary.^{220, 342} Of 774 chicks moved from Great Island, Newfoundland to Eastern Egg Rock in Maine, 147 have become established there or on nearby islands. His efforts are commendable, for over the last two decades there has been a 75 percent a decline in the puffin populations at western Atlantic colonies.⁴³⁸ Early figures for the British Isles estimated them in the millions, now they number little more than 600,000 pairs. Some calculate that the decline in the United Kingdom has leveled off, at least at a few colonies, with the beginning of a fall in the temperature of the sea. ^{244, 253} There is also evidence of recolonization on some islands. ⁵²¹ However, the data may be confused since the total picture has not been carefully monitored over several years. Different methods of counting have been used and standardization of techniques has been rare. About 50 percent of all Atlantic Puffins are located in Iceland where a rough estimate of six million birds breed. Estimates for the entire range of the species vary between eight to sixteen million birds. ⁴³⁹

Since 1967, Dr. Nettleship has been examining features of Atlantic Puffin populations on Great Island in Witless Bay, Newfoundland, where 40 percent of the North American population breed. ^{426, 439} He carefully counts heads as soon as the birds begin their breeding activities in Late April and early May. At his study location, total numbers are counted in a measured area laid out with ropes in a grid pattern. Comparisons are made with totals recorded in earlier years as well as with numbers from other less disturbed areas of the island. By this method, a decline of 25 to 35 percent in the nesting population was detected between 1973 and 1988.438 This represents a loss of approximately 180,000 breeding birds throughout the Newfoundland-Labrador area.

Although there is some indication that the decline is levelling off, a 30 percent decline in breeding birds in the western Atlantic is a real and disturbing figure. How long will it be before we have a total loss? Increase in predatory gull populations probably account for some losses, but there is no doubt that in the western Atlantic man is a major cause in the present downward trend in breeding success of puffins and other seabirds. ²⁷⁷

There is adequate evidence that the decline is due to general human disturbances: to hunting and fishing methods; to oil seepage from sunken ships; to accidental oil spills; and to deliberate rinsing of oil tankers at sea. One of the greatest threats today to the Atlantic Puffin in Canadian colonies is the industrial fishing of capelin on the Grand Banks which drastically reduces the quantity of food available for birds. ⁴³⁴

Puffins prefer to breed on sodded islands where the terrain slopes toward the sea. They are most successful along the edges of the slopes where, consequently the burrow density is usually greatest. Hatching and fledging success is lower on level parts of the colonies where predatory gulls have easier access to eggs and chicks, and where puffins have less chance of escaping with a load of fish. ⁴²⁶ Where there is no sod, puffins will nest among the rocks. A roof over their heads seems to be the primary requirement. Although some exceptions occur, puffins usually retain the same nest site and mate for life.²⁵⁰

Eastern Canadian birds begin forming rafts near their breeding islands early in April and by the end of the month the majority of experienced breeders have congregated for courtship activities. Copulation is preceded by billing, head-flicking by the male, and a sudden dash toward the female from the rear. Most frequently this takes place on the sea near the island. Watching the male court on the water makes one wonder how sperm can actually be transferred underwater. The female struggles to keep her head above water and, from all appearances, it looks as though the male is trying to drown her. Copulation attempts on land are most often abortive and end with the male engaging in bouts of head-flicking.⁴²⁶

Before converging on its breeding island, the Atlantic Puffin experiences a prenuptial molt which includes the regrowth of its colorful bill sheaths, the appearance of fresh facial feathers in shades of gray, and the renewal of its spotless, white breast. 60 When the bird is fully mature at about five years of age, although it may possibly be breeding sooner, its bill has acquired at least two ridges separated from the gray-blue base by yellow grooves. The ridges are a brilliant orange-red, and the scales of its legs and feet are also rich yellow to orange-red.

In the courtship displays, it is this large colorful bill that is the focal point. Billing, with the head waggling from side to side, with bills pressed together, and head-flicking are frequent activities before and after copulation and between periods of just plain idling or preening. The Atlantic Puffin is as amorous as a parrot and consequently, is often called the sea parrot or love-bird of the sea, although it is nothing like a parrot in other respects. Billing is infectious among the puffins and a billing pair often draws the attention of inquisitive neighbors.

Burrows are dug and repaired, too with this showy beak. Soil is loosened with the bill and ejected behind with the aid of sharp claws and webbed feet. Grass by the beakful is often played with, tossed into the air, squabbled over, or carried down the burrow to create a grass and feather mat on which to deposit the egg. Some nest material is dropped about within the burrow rather indiscriminately, and occasionally the egg may be incubated on the bare soil.^{236, 366, 426}

Atlantic Puffins are quiet birds. Sounds are limited to occasional growls, most often made within the burrows to warn neighbors from burrowing too close, and faint yawning sounds made during gaping and head-flicking. Puffins rely almost exclusively on sign language displayed by the prominent bill. They gape, exposing their yellow mouths, bill, head-flick, cock their tails, bow, waddle about paddling their colorful feet, and raise their neck feathers.

Fights occur, usually precipitated by a neighboring male's trespassing on another's territory within the immediate vicinity of the burrow entrance. In these squabbles the bill is used as a wrenching twisting weapon. Needle-sharp claws rip into the opponent's belly feathers, sometimes drawing blood. Although fighting is frequent, the aggressive action is usually short-lived and only accidentally fatal. The Atlantic Puffin seems to prefer peace and an inquisitive interest in its neighbor's affairs. Two birds locked together with bill and claws may roll head-over-tail down the slope and over the cliff to the sea below. The birds on the lower slopes merely step aside and watch the fighters tumble by.

In most locations egg laying begins in mid May and is usually complete by the end of the first week in June. ²⁵⁰ A single egg is laid in the dark recesses of a burrow or in deep positions under large boulders, away from the reach of man and predators. Mated birds do not always produce an egg even though they occupy a burrow site. ^{17, 250} Late season and poor feeding conditions may contribute to this. The egg is nearly white with an undercolor of pale lavender blotching. Both male and female share equally in the forty-two to forty-three days of incubation duties. ⁴²⁶

In ideal nesting habitats such as the steeper slopes of Great Island, David Nettleship found that hatching success was 72 percent, while on the less ideal flat areas of the island it was only 52.6 percent. ⁴²⁶ However, there was no significant difference noted between the two habitats in egg fertility: most eggs which failed to hatch here were most likely lost to gull predation. Nettleship also observed that chicks which hatch from the earlier-laid eggs in the season have a decided advantage over those which hatch from eggs laid late in the season, and that there is also a difference in the length of the nestling period. The early birds gained weight faster and fledged in less time than those hatched later in the season. Success varies from year to year according to weather and availability of food. Under these varying conditions, the young fledge between thirty-four ^{16, 17} to fifty-seven days of age, 250 although in exceptional cases, they have remained as long as seventy-four days. ⁴²⁶ In good years, when plenty of food is available, the fledging period occurs between thirty-eight to forty-one days.²⁵⁰ Food shortages result in slower growth, retarded fledging, or complete failure to fledge.⁴⁴

Gulls are apparently a greater hazard to rearing young than are other factors. It is demonstrated that the breeding success is only 37 percent where gulls molest puffin colonies by stealing eggs, young, and food being carried to the young by adults. By comparison, where gulls are not present, puffins attain a 90 percent fledging success.⁴²⁶ This very significant difference indicates that we should expect a decline in Atlantic Puffin numbers if gull populations increase. Evidence indicates that in the last few decades gulls have significantly increased in numbers because man by dumping garbage has made scavenging easier for them.³¹⁹

Inclement weather, too, affects breeding success. In unfavorable weather, capelin, the chief food fish, may be more difficult to catch, and fewer trips can be made in storms to deliver food to the young.⁴⁶ Heavy rain may flood burrows, and on some islands cause burrows to collapse, which buries the eggs or chicks, or exposes the young to predation by gulls, which also find other foods less available during storms.

The Atlantic Puffin's bill is marvelously designed for catching and transporting fish. Fleshy rosettes at the base of the bill allow a wider gape than most birds, enabling the puffin to hold several fish and at the same time to pinch tightly when attacking additional fish. A puffin has been known to hold as many as twenty-eight small fish in its bill at one time. A more usual number would be two or three larger fish. Actually, puffins are more restricted by weight capacity: 12 to 14 grams is a normal load and a 25 gram load is maximum.

A puffin flies at speeds of 40 to 80 kilometers per hour and, according to studies calculating the time spent away from the colony between feedings, it has a potential range of almost 130 kilometers although the actual distance is probably much less than 13 kilometers in most instances.^{96, 475}

When first hatched and dried, the chick is active and equipped with a short slate-gray bill bearing a white egg-tooth which assists in the hatching process and which soon wears away. The down is sooty-black over the back and the belly is silky and white. Even after three weeks, frayed down still clings thickly to the body feathers developing beneath. By Day 35, the feathers provide a smoother covering while down still forms a mane around the neck.

After the chick hatches it is brooded for a week by which time it has a regulated temperature. It is then capable of remaining alone in the burrows by night and day.²⁵⁰ This frees the parents to spend time together well offshore, each coming to the burrow two to six times a day with a load of fish for the chick. On Great Island, birds on the slope or shoulder of the island averaged more feedings per day than those with burrows on the more level ground where gull predation lowers the feeding rate.⁴²⁶ Only occasionally do the parents remain in the burrow with their young at night.

At fledging age the young looks more like its parents, although its bill will not be completely mature until at least the fourth prenuptial molt. A young puffin has a light gray face with a smudge of sooty gray between the bill and the eye. Except for its larger bill, the adult in winter plumage looks much the same as the juvenile. The adult loses its brilliantly-colored bill with the autumn molt, when the external sheath gradually discolors and drops off. A fresh new covering comes again with the spring.

When ready to fledge, the young puffin comes out of its burrow to exercise its wings under the cover of darkness. It has attained by now 75 percent of the adult weight, and is prepared to answer the "call of the sea." Once away from the burrow, it never turns back. It waddles down until it flutters over the edge of the cliff or reaches the surf on foot. It goes into the sea diving, splashing, bathing, diving, getting further from land, for in the sea it now belongs, and instinctively using its wings to fly underwater, it learns to pursue its prey. Only the hormonal urge to breed will bring it back again, four or five years hence.^{17, 248, 484} As far as we know, the life expectancy of a puffin may be twenty years or more. In order to maintain stable populations, a bird's life expectancy must be at least that much if we allow for the mortality of eggs and chicks observed in most studies.

In winter, it is rare to see an Atlantic Puffin very close to shore.¹⁰³ At sea it demonstrates its truly pelagic nature, traveling far and wide with seldom another puffin in view. It must ride out winter storms far away from land, remaining on the surface, for gale-force winds never wreck this bird inland as happens to the more littoral species. Yearlings and two-year-olds stay at sea, even during the summer. Only occasionally does a one or two-year-old come to a breeding colony, and then only late in the season.

How far a puffin wanders at sea is a good question, which even banding studies have not yet answered fully. Some have been known to mingle with birds from opposite sides of the Atlantic. How can it, then, travel so far and still find the way back to the proximity of its own breeding territories, which we know it does? One might expect that after two to three years a bird might forget where it came from, or what shore was responsible for brooding it. A good memory seems to imply an element of reason but perhaps a puffin remains within communicative distance of fellow members of the same population. We know so little about the winter activity of most species of seabirds that we can only speculate.

One may also wonder how this bird can remain at sea without drinking freshwater. All seabirds have special glands which secrete excess salt. One puffin was given 4 milliliters of a strong sodium chloride solution, (1.0 Normal), and within twenty minutes the salt glands had excreted 75 percent of the amount.²⁸⁴ Fresh water is therefore unnecessary for a puffin. The Atlantic Puffin suffers from internal and external parasitic infections. The chick in the nest is particularly vulnerable to infestations of ticks and red chicken mites. In the British Isles, some have thought that rabbits are a puffin enemy, but rabbits respect the puffin's peck and keep their distance. Only during the off-season do rabbits venture into the shelter of puffins burrows unless they are unoccupied.³⁶⁶

Gulls seem to be, next to man, the puffin's worst enemy. The young of the smaller, eastern Atlantic race may be swallowed whole by the large Black-backed Gulls.⁴²⁶ But once in the sea and away from land, gulls are no menace. The puffin's agility at diving and remaining submerged for thirty seconds or more discourages the gulls, which go in search of easier food. Eagles, hawks, falcons, ravens, jackdaws, owls and rats are also predators.

It is man, however, who interferes with natural populations the most. Man's attempts to control or protect one species or another may actually upset the natural balance. Unfortunately for the puffin, it is good to eat. At least, so say the Faroese and Icelanders, who have harvested it for flesh and feathers for centuries. Now, the numbers are declining on the Faeroes. But it is sudden calamities such as oil spills or man's harvesting of its food sources which may bring about its extermination. We must prevent this from happening -- to lose the Atlantic Puffin would be to lose a real jewel of the sea. (See Appendix Figures 9, 22 for additional information on the Atlantic Puffin.)